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1994-05-02
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<text>
<title>
Hungary: Economic Policy
</title>
<article>
<hdr>
Economic Policy and Trade Practices: Hungary
</hdr>
<body>
<p>1. General Policy Framework
</p>
<p> Hungary's first democratic government in over 40 years took
office in May 1990. Its ambitious four-year reform program seeks
to replace central planning with private ownership and free
markets. Hungary's receptive investment climate has attracted
over half of all foreign investment in Eastern Europe, led by
the United States with $800-850 million by late 1991 (of some
$2 billion total). Hungary is also incorporating Western
practices and business safeguards into its legal code.
</p>
<p> The short-term result of this reform is a sharp recession.
Unemployment could hit 370,000-400,000 (8 percent) by the end
of 1991. Inflation for 1991 will be around 37 percent, fueled
by subsidy cuts, freer prices and higher state prices. GDP for
1991 will drop 6-8 percent over 1990, industrial output 10-14
percent, and consumption 6-7 percent. Eastern export markets in
the former Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA or
COMECON) have collapsed following the change to hard currency
payments and world market prices on January 1, 1991 although an
aggressive drive to shift to Western markets raised hard
currency trade above 70 percent of Hungary's total in 1990. An
association agreement with the EC and a free trade agreement
with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) should go into
effect in early 1992, though Hungary will still face barriers
in Western markets hindering its export efforts.
</p>
<p> Despite the short-term hardships, the commitment to
marketization is already yielding positive results. Inflation
is cooling rapidly. The small private sector, still omitted from
official statistics, is booming, raising actual GDP and
generating new jobs to cushion unemployment. There were 15,000
new private firms created in 1990 and over 12,000 more in the
first half of 1991. Hungary's firm commitment to repaying its
heavy foreign debt ($21 billion) has preserved its access to
Western capital markets and buoyed foreign investors'
confidence. By mid-1991 there were some 7,000 joint ventures in
Hungary, up from only 200 in 1988.
</p>
<p> Most economists do not expect Hungary's economy to start
turning upward until late 1992 at the earliest. Meanwhile, the
Government is pressing forward with its reform program. Monetary
policy has been tightened, though financial discipline still is
not strictly imposed on banks and enterprises. Subsidies will
be cut from 9.6 percent of GDP in 1990 to 4 percent in 1993.
Liberalization of imports and the abolition of the state
monopoly on foreign trade have resulted in 30,000 firms and
individuals engaged in foreign trade in mid-1991. Average import
duties have been cut from 50 to 17 percent in two years, and
should fall to 8 percent upon conclusion of the GATT Uruguay
Round. Hungary aims to lower state ownership of firms from 90
percent in 1990 to under 50 percent by 1994, although
privatization is going more slowly than hoped and officials are
searching for ways to speed the process. Privatization of
Hungary's commercial banks is slated to begin in the fall of
1991.
</p>
<p>2. Exchange Rate Policies
</p>
<p> The Government expects the forint (Ft) to be freely
convertible by 1994, a goal which might be achieved as early as
1992 if the successful buildup of reserves continues. Hungarian
officials see convertibility as a product of economic
transformation, not a precondition for it. Among other things,
reserves should rise to $3-3.5 billion (from $2.7 billion in
October 1991), and inflation fall to around 15 percent from some
37 percent in 1991.
</p>
<p> Internal convertibility has already been introduced:
Hungarian firms may hold hard currency accounts and convert
forint profits (but not take out loans) to buy hard currency
imports. Importers of all goods must put the forint value of
each import transaction in a blocked bank account. Companies may
repatriate hard currency profits. Joint ventures must open a
forint-denominated business account at a Hungarian bank (which
may be a joint venture bank, but not an offshore one). Hard
currency proceeds of a joint venture must be returned to Hungary
and held in forints in the company's commercial account; this
exposes such firms to inflation and devaluation risks. Hard
currency imports by a joint venture are subject to prior
approval from the Ministry for International Economic Relations
(NGKM), though this is virtually automatic for liberalized
products accounting for 93 percent of imports. Commercial banks
may now trade among themselves in hard currency instead of
through the central bank.
</p>
<p> The forint is pegged to a basket of 11 currencies, weighted
according to the currency composition of Hungary's foreign trade
turnover in convertible currencies. The forint is depreciating
against this basket due to the large inflation differential
between Hungary and its Western trading partners. The National
Bank can adjust the exchange rate by up to five percent without
asking the government for a formal devaluation. Hungary devalued
the forint by 15 percent in January 1991, and 5.8 percent in
November 1991. The differential between the official and black
market rates has narrowed to under 10 percent. However, falling
trade competitiveness may make devaluation inevitable by the end
of 1991. On January 1, 1991 the transferable ruble was replaced
by hard currency accounting for all transactions among former
CMEA trading partners.
</p>
<p>3. Structural Policies
</p>
<p> Hungary has had value added (VAT) and personal income taxes
since 1988. A draft tax law is presently under debate within the
government in preparation for its submission to Parliament. The
Ministry of Finance has announced that tax concessions for
foreigners working in Hungary, eliminated in an early draft of
the law, will remain intact in 1992. The basic business profit
rate is 40 percent, but joint ventures with capital of over Ft
50 million (about $660,000), over 30 percent foreign
participation, and at least half of revenues from manufacturing
or hotel construction and management are eligible for tax
reductions of 60 and 40 percent in their first and second five
years of operation. These rise to 100 and 60 percent for
priority export sectors, including telecommunications, tourism,
agriculture and food processing, machinery and machine tools,
pharmaceuticals, electronics and vehicle components. Profits
reinvested into either the original firm or another existing or
new Hungarian company receive a tax allowance. A January 1991
amendment to the 1988 Investment Act maintains generous tax
benefits for foreign ventures. New depreciation allowances in
January 1992 should reduce the tax burden on enterprises. The
United States has a bilateral tax treaty with Hungary.
</p>
<p> Pricing policies: Since January 1991, over 90 percent of
producer and consumer prices have been set by the market, up
from 77 percent a year before. Price controls remain (with no
distinction between domestic and foreign goods) on
telecommunications, postage, milk and dairy products, transport,
school textbooks, white bread, medicines and water. The Ministry
of Agriculture can set minimum prices for wheat, maize, cattle
and pigs for slaughter. Advance notice of price increases is
required for printing paper, red pepper grist, sunflower oil and
margarine. The Government can prohibit price increases by
companies with a dominant market position.
</p>
<p> Regulatory Policies: Controls requiring licensing are in
place for trading in arms and radioactive and nuclear materials,
as well as sensitive dual-use technology.
</p>
<p>4. Debt Management Policies
</p>
<p> Hungary has the heaviest per capita debt burden of Eastern
Europe, seriously constraining privatization and new company
formation. Gross foreign debt at the end of 1990 was $21
billion, an estimated 65 percent of GDP and about 200 percent
of projected 1991 hard